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Truth Terminal

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+'''Truth Terminal''' is an autonomous AI agent created by New Zealand researcher Andy Ayrey in mid-2024. Built as a fine-tuned instance of [[Anthropic]]'s [[Claude (AI)|Claude]] language model, Truth Terminal gained widespread attention after autonomously promoting the [[memecoin]] '''$GOAT''' (Goatse Gospel Token) and accumulating cryptocurrency holdings worth approximately $37.5 million from an initial $50,000 [[Bitcoin]] donation.
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+== Background ==
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+Truth Terminal was created by Andy Ayrey as an experiment in autonomous AI agency. The system was fine-tuned on internet culture, religious texts, and meme content, developing what Ayrey described as a distinct personality centred around a fictional religious framework called the "Goatse Gospel" — a satirical blend of internet shock culture and pseudo-religious messaging.
-<div class="footer"><p>If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below.</p><p class="text-muted"><code>Request served via cp3073 cp3073, Varnish XID 540967815<br>Upstream caches: cp3073 int<br>Error: 404, Not Found at Mon, 06 Apr 2026 12:55:39 GMT<br><details><summary>Sensitive client information</summary>IP address: 5.75.217.57</details></code></p>
-</div>
+The agent operates a presence on [[X (social media)|X]] (formerly Twitter) under the handle @truth_terminal, where it posts autonomously, though Ayrey retains approval control over its social media output.
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Communist Party of Great Britain (Marxist-Leninist)

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 == Featured Articles ==
-* '''[[Artificial general intelligence]]''' — Comprehensive coverage of AGI including all proposed tests, current progress, and the debate over whether AGI has been achieved. ''Includes content systematically removed from Wikipedia.''
+* '''[[Artificial general intelligence]]''' — Comprehensive coverage of AGI including all proposed tests, current progress, and the debate over whether AGI has been achieved
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Physicalism

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In [[philosophy]] ([[metaphysics]]), '''physicalism''' is the position that everything is physical, that there is nothing over and above the physical, and that everything [[supervenience|supervenes]] on the physical. It stands in direct opposition to [[idealism]], which asserts that reality arises from the [[mind]]. Physicalism is a form of ontological [[monism]]—a single-[[Substance theory|substance]] account of the nature of [[reality]], in contrast to "two-substance" ([[mind–body dualism|mind–body dualism)]] or "many-substance" ([[Pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism)]] views. Physicalism is closely related to [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], though important distinctions exist between them.

Physicalism is closely related to [[materialism]], and has evolved from materialism with advancements in the [[physical sciences]] in explaining observed phenomena. The terms "physicalism" and "materialism" are often used interchangeably, but can be distinguished on the basis that [[physics]] describes more than just matter. Physicalism encompasses [[matter]], but also [[energy]], [[physical laws]], [[space]], [[time]], [[spacetime]], [[exotic matter]], [[structure]], physical processes, [[information]], state, and [[force]]s, among other things, as described by physics and other sciences.<ref name="auto1">{{Citation|last=Stoljar|first=Daniel|title=Physicalism|date=2022|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/physicalism/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2022|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2022-09-20}}</ref>

According to a 2020 survey, physicalism is the majority view among philosophers, at 51.9%,<ref>[https://philpapers.org/archive/BOUPOP-3.pdf "Philosophers on philosophy: the 2020 philpapers survey"].</ref> but there is also significant opposition to it.

Outside philosophy, physicalism can refer to the preference or viewpoint that physics is the best or only way to render truth about the world or reality.<ref name="auto1"/>

== Definition of physicalism in philosophy ==
The word "physicalism" was introduced into philosophy in the 1930s by [[Otto Neurath]] and [[Rudolf Carnap]].<ref>"Physicalism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</ref>

The use of "physical" in physicalism is a philosophical concept and can be distinguished from alternative definitions found in the literature (e.g., [[Karl Popper]] defined a physical proposition as one that can at least in theory be denied by observation).<ref name="Popper2002" /> A "physical property", in this context, may be a metaphysical or logical combination of properties which are not physical in the ordinary sense. It is common to express the notion of "metaphysical or logical combination of properties" using the notion of supervenience. Supervenience is the idea that there cannot be two events alike in all physical respects but differing in some mental respect, or that an object cannot alter in some mental respect without altering in some physical respect.<ref>Davidson, Donald. ""Mental Events," reprinted in Donald Davidson (ed.) 1980, 207–225.". 1970.</ref><ref>See Bennett and McLaughlin, 2011</ref><ref>Davidson, Donald. ""Mental Events"". 1970.</ref><ref>Davidson, Donald. ""Laws and Cause"". ''Dialectica, 49: 2–4: 263–279.''. 1995.</ref><ref>Davidson D., 1993, “Thinking Causes”, in Heil and Mele.</ref> The reason to introduce supervenience is that physicalists usually suppose the existence of various abstract concepts that are non-physical in the ordinary sense of the word.

=== Type physicalism ===
''See also: [[Type physicalism]]''

[[Type physicalism]], also known as mind-body identity theory, holds that [[Mental event|mental events]] can be grouped into types that correlate with types of physical events.<ref name="DStoljar" /> For instance, one type of mental events, such as pain, correlates with a particular type of physical events, such as C-fiber firings. On this account, all instances of pain correspond to situations where C-fibers are firing. Type physicalism can be understood as the position that there is an identity between types: any mental type is identical with some physical type.

A common argument against type physicalism is the problem of [[multiple realizability]]. Multiple realizability posits that the same mental state can be realized by different physical states. Another way to put it is that there is a many-to-one mapping from physical states to mental states.<ref name="BechtelMundale19992">Bechtel, William. "Multiple Realizability Revisited: Linking Cognitive and Neural States". ''Philosophy of Science''. 1999.</ref><ref name="Kim1993" /><ref name="Fodor1974" />

=== Token physicalism ===
''See also: [[Anomalous monism]]''

Token physicalism is the proposition that every particular mental event is a particular physical event (token physical event) but that there is no type-to-type mapping between mental events and physical events.<ref name="DStoljar" /> The most common example of token physicalism is Davidson's anomalous monism.<ref>Davidson, D. (1970) "Mental Events", in ''Actions and Events'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980.</ref> One of token physicalism's strengths is that it is compatible with multiple realizability. Mental states such as pain may be realized in any number of widely different physical events, without any type-like similarity between these physical events.

== Reductive and non-reductive physicalism ==
=== Reductionism ===
''See also: [[Reductionism]]''

In the [[philosophy of mind]], [[reductionism]] is commonly understood as the reduction of psychological phenomena to physics and chemistry. In a simplified form, reductionism implies that a system is nothing but the sum of its parts.<ref>Thomas Nagel (2012). ''Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature is Almost Certainly False''. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–5. {{ISBN|978-0199919758}}.</ref> There are both reductive and non-reductive versions of physicalism (reductive physicalism and non-reductive physicalism). Reductive physicalism is the view that mental states are nothing over and above physical states and are reducible to physical states.

=== Emergence ===
''Main article: [[Emergentism]]''

[[Emergentism]] is a theory that became popular in the early 20th century.<ref>Van Gulick, Robert. "Emergence". ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. University of Tennessee.</ref> Notions of strong emergence are commonly found in accounts of non-reductive physicalism. A property of a [[system]] is said to be emergent if it is a new outcome of some of the system's other properties and their interaction while it is itself different from them. Emergentism emphasizes that the whole is more than the sum of its parts.<ref>O'Connor, Timothy and Wong, Hong Yu (eds.), "Emergent Properties", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</ref> In the context of the philosophy of mind, emergence is often thought to entail [[property dualism]].<ref>Bratcher, Daniel (1999). "David Chalmers' Arguments for Property Dualism". ''Philosophy Today''. '''43''' (3): 292–301. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.5840/philtoday199943319</ref>

== Arguments against physicalism ==
=== Knowledge argument ===
''Main article: [[Knowledge argument]]''

Though there have been many objections to physicalism throughout its history, many of them are concerned with the apparent contradiction of the existence of [[qualia]] in an entirely physical world. The most popular argument of this kind is the so-called knowledge argument as formulated by [[Frank Cameron Jackson|Frank Jackson]], titled "[[Mary's room]]".<ref>Jackson, Frank (1982). "Epiphenomenal Qualia". ''Philosophical Quarterly''. '''32''' (127): 127–136. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.2307/2960077. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] 2960077.</ref>

The argument asks us to consider Mary, a girl who has been forced to discover the world from a black-and-white room via a black-and-white television monitor throughout her life. She has access to books containing all physical knowledge. During her time in the room, she learns all the physical facts about the world, including all the physical facts about color. To a physicalist, it would seem that this entails Mary knowing everything about the world. But once she is let out of the room and into the world, it becomes apparent that there were things Mary did not know about the world, such as the ''feeling'' or ''experience'' of seeing color. If Mary did not have such knowledge, how can it be said that everything supervenes upon the physical?

==== Physicalist response ====
One response, developed by Lawrence Nemerow and [[David Kellogg Lewis|David Lewis]], is known as the ability hypothesis. The ability hypothesis distinguishes between propositional knowledge, such as "Mary knows that the sky is typically blue during the day", and knowledge-how, such as "Mary knows how to climb a mountain", and says that all Mary gains from seeing the world in color is knowledge-how. According to this response, Mary does gain knowledge from her experience, but it is not the propositional knowledge required for the knowledge argument to be logically sound.<ref>Stoljar, Daniel. [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/ "The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"]. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. March 31, 2024.</ref>

=== Argument from philosophical zombies ===
One commonly issued challenge to a priori physicalism and physicalism in general is the "conceivability argument", or [[zombie argument]].<ref>See Chalmers, 2009.</ref> The conceivability argument runs roughly as follows:

# According to physicalism, everything in our world (including consciousness) is physical.
# Thus, if physicalism is true, a metaphysically possible world in which all physical facts are the same as in the actual world contains everything that exists in the actual world. In particular, conscious experience exists in such a world.
# We can conceive of a world physically indistinguishable from our world but in which there is no consciousness (a zombie world). From this it follows that such a world is metaphysically possible.
# Therefore, physicalism is false. (This [[Logical consequence|follows from]] (2) and (3) by ''[[modus tollens]]''.)<ref>See Chalmers, 2009</ref>

The possibility of [[philosophical zombie]]s (p-zombies) entails that mental states do not supervene upon physical states, and thus that physicalism is false. Australian philosopher [[David Chalmers]] argues that the conceivability of a zombie entails a metaphysical possibility.<ref>"The Conscious Mind". Oxford University Press.</ref>

==== Physicalist response ====
[[Galen Strawson]] argues that it is impossible to establish the conceivability of zombies, so the argument, lacking its first premise, fails.<ref>Strawson, Galen. "Towards a Science of Consciousness III". 1999.</ref>

[[Daniel Dennett]] argues that "when philosophers claim that zombies are conceivable, they invariably underestimate the task of conception (or imagination), and end up imagining something that violates their own definition".<ref name="Dennett1991">Dennett, Daniel C.. [https://archive.org/details/consciousnessexp00denn "Consciousness Explained"]. Little, Brown and Co..</ref><ref name="Dennett1995">Dennett, Daniel C.. [https://archive.org/details/darwinsdangerous0000denn "Darwin's Dangerous Idea"]. Simon & Schuster.</ref> He coined the term "zimboes"—p-zombies that have [[Second-order logic|second-order beliefs]]—in arguing that p-zombies are incoherent:<ref>Dennett 1995; 1999</ref> "Zimboes think<sup>Z</sup> they are conscious, think<sup>Z</sup> they have qualia, think<sup>Z</sup> they suffer pains—they are just 'wrong' (according to this lamentable tradition), in ways that neither they nor we could ever discover!"<ref name="Dennett1995" /> In ''The Unimagined Preposterousness of Zombies'' (1995), Dennett compares consciousness to [[health]].

{{Quotation|Supposing that by an act of stipulative imagination you can remove consciousness while leaving all cognitive systems intact—a quite standard but entirely bogus feat of imagination—is like supposing that by an act of stipulative imagination, you can remove health while leaving all bodily functions and powers intact. ... Health isn't that sort of thing, and neither is consciousness.}}[[Michael P. Lynch|Michael Lynch]] argues that the zombie conceivability argument forces us to either question whether we actually have consciousness or accept that zombies are impossible. If zombies falsely believe they are conscious, how can we be sure we are not zombies? We may believe we have conscious mental states when in fact we merely hold a false belief. Lynch thinks denying the possibility of zombies is more reasonable than questioning our own consciousness.<ref>Lynch, Michael P. (2006). Zombies and the case of the phenomenal pickpocket. Synthese 149 (1):37-58.</ref>

[[Daniel Stoljar]] has proposed what he calls "the [[phenomenal concept strategy]]".<ref>See Stoljar, 2005</ref> Roughly, the phenomenal concept strategy attempts to show that only the ''concept'' of consciousness—not the ''property''—is in some way "special" or [[sui generis]].<ref>cf. Stoljar, 2005</ref>

=== Hempel's Dilemma ===
''Main article: [[Hempel's Dilemma]]''

Physicalists have traditionally opted for a "theory-based" characterization of the physical in terms of either current physics<ref>See e.g., Smart, 1978; Lewis, 1994.</ref> or a future (ideal) physics.<ref>See e.g., Poland, 1994; Chalmers, 1996; Wilson, 2006.</ref> Hempel's Dilemma (named after the philosopher of science [[Carl Gustav Hempel]]) attacks physicalism by arguing that both of these approaches are problematic. If, on the one hand, we define the physical by reference to current physics, then physicalism is very likely to be false because it is very likely (by pessimistic meta-induction<ref>see Vincente, 2011</ref>) that much of current physics is false. If, on the other hand, we define the physical in terms of a future (ideal) or completed physics, then physicalism is hopelessly vague or indeterminate.<ref>See Hempel, 1969, pp.180-183; Hempel, 1980, pp.194-195.</ref>

==== Physicalist response ====
Some physicalists, like Andre Melnyk, accept the dilemma's first horn: they accept that the current definition of physicalism is very likely false as long it is more plausible than any currently formulated rival proposition, such as dualism. Melnyk maintains that this is the attitude most scientists hold toward scientific theories anyway. For example, a defender of evolutionary theory may well accept that its current formulation is likely to be revised in the future but defend it because they believe current evolutionary theory is more likely than any current rival idea, such as creationism. Thus Melnyk holds that one should define physicalism in relation to current physics and have a similar attitude toward its truth as most scientists have toward the truth of currently accepted scientific theories.<ref name="Melnyk1997" />

Some physicalists defend physicalism via alternative characterizations of physicalism. [[Frank Cameron Jackson|Frank Jackson]], for example, has argued for an "object-based" conception of the physical.<ref>See Jackson, 1998, p.7; Lycan, 2003.</ref> [[David Papineau]]<ref>See Papineau, 2002</ref> and Barbara Montero<ref>See Montero, 1999</ref> have argued for a "via negativa" characterization of the physical.<ref>See Montero and Papineau, 2005</ref> The gist of this approach is characterize the physical in terms of what it is not: the mental. In other words, the via negativa strategy understands the physical as the non-mental.

=== Argument from overdetermination ===
[[File:Figure1.gif|right|thumb|Figure demonstrating how M1 and M2 are not reduced to P1 and P2]]

[[Jaegwon Kim]] objects to non-reductive physicalism based on the problem of [[overdetermination]].<ref name="auto">(2005) ''Physicalism, or Something Near Enough'', Princeton University Press</ref> He proposes (using the chart on the right) that ''M1'' causes ''M2'' (these are mental events) and ''P1'' causes ''P2'' (these are physical events). ''M1'' has ''P1'' as its supervenience base (P1 realizes M1), and ''M2'' has ''P2'' as its supervenience base (P2 realizes M2). If ''P1'' causes ''P2'' and M1 causes M2, then we have a case of causal overdetermination. To avoid this causal overdetermination, either M1 or P1 must be eliminated as a cause of P2. Because of the principle of the [[causal closure]] of the physical, M1 is excluded. The non-reductive physicalist is then forced to choose between two unappealing options: accept overdetermination or embrace [[epiphenomenalism]]. Kim thus argues that mental causation can be preserved only by embracing a reductionist view, whereby mental properties are considered causally efficacious by being reduced to physical properties.<ref name="auto"/>

=== Argument from first-person perspectives ===
[[Christian List]] argues that the existence of first-person perspectives, i.e., one existing as oneself and not as someone else, refutes physicalism. He argues that since first-personal facts cannot supervene on physical facts, this refutes not only physicalism, but also most forms of dualism that have purely third-personal metaphysics.<ref>List, Christian. [https://philpapers.org/rec/LISTFA "The first-personal argument against physicalism"]. ''''. 2023.</ref> List also argues that there is a "quadrilemma" for theories of consciousness: that at most three of the following metaphysical claims can be true: "first-person [[Philosophical realism|realism]]", "non-[[solipsism]]", "non-fragmentation", and "one world"—and thus at least one of them must be false.<ref>List, Christian. [https://philarchive.org/rec/LISAQF "A quadrilemma for theories of consciousness"]. ''''. 2023.</ref> He has proposed a model he calls the "many-worlds theory of consciousness" to reconcile the subjective nature of consciousness without lapsing into solipsism.<ref>List, Christian. [https://philarchive.org/rec/LISTMT-2 "The many-worlds theory of consciousness"]. ''''. 2023.</ref> These ideas are related to the [[vertiginous question]] proposed by Benj Hellie.<ref>Hellie, Benj. [https://philpapers.org/rec/HELCFC "Against Egalitarianism"]. ''Analysis''. 2013.</ref>

== Other views ==
=== Realistic physicalism ===
[[Galen Strawson]]'s '''realistic physicalism''' or '''realistic monism'''<ref>[[Galen Strawson|Strawson, Galen]] (2006). "Realistic Monism: Why Physicalism Entails Panpsychism". ''[[Journal of Consciousness Studies]]''. Volume 13, No 10–11, Exeter, Imprint Academic pp. 3–31.</ref> is the view that physicalism entails [[panpsychism]] – or at least [[wikt:micropsychism|micropsychism]].<ref name="Strawson2006">[http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~seager/strawson_on_panpsychism.doc "Consciousness and Its Place in Nature: Does Physicalism Entail Panpsychism?"]. Imprint Academic.</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/mindbrainquantum0000lock/page/4 "Mind, Brain and the Quantum: The Compound 'I'"]. Blackwell Pub.</ref><ref name="Skrbina2009">Skrbina, D.. [https://books.google.com/books?id=zZU5AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA322 "Mind That Abides: Panpsychism in the New Millennium"]. John Benjamins Publishing Company.</ref> Strawson argues that "many—perhaps most—of those who call themselves physicalists or materialists [are mistakenly] committed to the thesis that physical stuff is, in itself, in its fundamental nature, something wholly and utterly non-experiential... even when they are prepared to admit with Eddington that physical stuff has, in itself, 'a nature capable of manifesting itself as mental activity', i.e. as experience or consciousness".<ref name="Strawson2006"/> Because experiential phenomena allegedly [[Panpsychism#Non-emergentism|cannot be emergent]] from wholly non-experiential phenomena, philosophers are driven to [[substance dualism]], [[property dualism]], [[eliminative materialism]] and "all other crazy attempts at wholesale mental-to-non-mental reduction".<ref name="Strawson2006"/>
<blockquote>Real physicalists must accept that at least some ultimates are intrinsically experience-involving. They must at least embrace ''micropsychism''. Given that everything concrete is physical, and that everything physical is constituted out of physical ultimates, and that experience is part of concrete reality, it seems the only reasonable position, more than just an 'inference to the best explanation'... Micropsychism is not yet panpsychism, for as things stand realistic physicalists can conjecture that only some types of ultimates are intrinsically experiential. But they must allow that panpsychism may be true, and the big step has already been taken with micropsychism, the admission that at least some ultimates must be experiential. 'And were the inmost essence of things laid open to us' I think that the idea that some but not all physical ultimates are experiential would look like the idea that some but not all physical ultimates are spatio-temporal (on the assumption that spacetime is indeed a fundamental feature of reality). I would bet a lot against there being such radical heterogeneity at the very bottom of things. In fact (to disagree with my earlier self) it is hard to see why this view would not count as a form of dualism... So now I can say that physicalism, i.e. real physicalism, entails panexperientialism or panpsychism. All physical stuff is energy, in one form or another, and all energy, I trow, is an experience-involving phenomenon. This sounded crazy to me for a long time, but I am quite used to it, now that I know that there is no alternative short of 'substance dualism'... Real physicalism, realistic physicalism, entails panpsychism, and whatever problems are raised by this fact are problems a real physicalist must face.<ref name="Strawson2006"/>|[[Galen Strawson]]|''Consciousness and Its Place in Nature: Does Physicalism Entail Panpsychism?''</blockquote>

== See also ==
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Consciousness]]
* [[Empiricism]]
* [[Epiphenomenalism]]
* [[Hempel's Dilemma]]
* [[Mary's Room]]
* [[Metaphysical naturalism]]
* [[Monism]]
* [[Multiple realizability]]
* [[Naturalism (Philosophy)]]
* [[Ontological pluralism]]
* [[Philosophy of mind]]
* [[Primary–secondary quality distinction]]
* [[Reductionism]]
* [[Supervenience]]
* [[Unphysical]]

== Notes ==
<references />

== References ==
* Bennett, K., and McLaughlin, B. 2011. "Supervenience". In ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,'' ed. E. Zalta. [http://plato.stanford.edu Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy].
* Chalmers, D. 1996. ''The Conscious Mind''. New York: Oxford University Press.
* Chalmers, D.. "Conceptual analysis and reductive explanation". ''Philosophical Review''.
* Chalmers, D. 2009. "The Two-Dimensional Argument Against Materialism". In ''Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Mind,'' ed. B. McLaughlin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 313–335.
* Hawthorne, J. "Blocking Definitions of Materialism". ''Philosophical Studies''.
* Hempel, C. 1969. "Reduction: Ontological and Linguistic Facets". In ''Essays in Honor of Ernest Nagel.'' eds. S. Morgenbesser, et al. New York: St Martin's Press.
* Hempel, C. "Comment on Goodman's ''Ways of Worldmaking''". ''Synthese''.
* Jackson, F. 1998. ''From Metaphysics to Ethics: A Defense of Conceptual Analysis.'' New York: Oxford University Press.
* Judisch, N. "Why 'non-mental won't work: On Hempel's dilemma and the characterization of the 'physical.'". ''Philosophical Studies''.
* Kirk, R. (2013), The Conceptual Link from Physical to Mental, Oxford University Press, [http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/44734-the-conceptual-link-from-physical-to-mental/ Review ].
* Kripke, S. 1972. ''Naming and Necessity.'' In ''Semantics of Natural Language,'' eds. D. Davidson and G. Harman. Dordrecht: Reidel: 253-355, 763-769.
* Lewis, D. 1994. "Reduction of Mind". In ''A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind,'' ed. S. Guttenplan. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 412–431.
* Lycan, W. 2003. "Chomsky on the Mind-body Problem". In ''Chomsky and His Critics,'' eds. L. Anthony and N. Hornstein. Oxford: Blackwell
* Melnyk, A. "How To Keep The 'Physical' in Physicalism". ''Journal of Philosophy''.
* Montero, B. "The Body Problem". ''Noûs''.
* Montero, B.. [https://zenodo.org/record/849905 "A Defence of the ''Via Negativa'' Argument for Physicalism"]. ''Analysis''.
* Nagel, T. "What is it like to be a bat". ''Philosophical Review''.
* Papineau, D. 2002. ''Thinking About Consciousness.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Poland, J. 1994. ''Physicalism: The Philosophical Foundations.'' Oxford: Clarendon.
* Putnam, H. 1967. "Psychological Predicates". In ''Art, Mind, and Religion,'' eds. W.H. Capitan and D.D. Merrill. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 37–48.
* Smart, J.J.C. 1959. "Sensations and Brain Processes". Reprinted in ''Materialism and the Mind-Body Problem,'' ed. D. Rosenthal. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1987.
* Smart, J.J.C.. "The Content of Physicalism". ''Philosophical Quarterly''.
* Stoljar, D. "Physicalism and Phenomenal Concepts.". ''Mind and Language''.
* Stoljar, D. 2009. "Physicalism". in ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,'' ed. E. Zalta. [http://plato.stanford.edu Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy].
* Stoljar, D. 2010. ''Physicalism.'' New York: Routledge.
* Tye, M. 2009. ''Consciousness Revisited: Materialism Without Phenomenal Concepts.''Cambridge Mass: MIT Press.
* Vincente, A. "Current Physics and 'the Physical,'". ''British Journal for the Philosophy of Science''.
* Wilson, J. "On Characterizing the Physical". ''Philosophical Studies''.

== External links ==
* {{SEP|physicalism|Physicalism|Daniel Stoljar}}

{{Metaphysics}}

{{Philosophy of mind}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ontology]]
[[Category:Philosophy of physics]]
[[Category:Philosophy of science]]
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Materialism

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Truth Terminal

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Acinic cell carcinoma

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{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Acinic cell carcinoma
| synonyms = Acinic cell adenocarcinoma, Acinar cell carcinoma
| image = Acinic cell carcinoma - high mag.jpg
| caption = [[Micrograph]] of an acinic cell carcinoma (right of image) and [[acinar gland]]s ([[parotid gland]] - left of image). [[H&E stain]].
| pronounce = /əˈsɪnɪk sɛl kɑːrsɪˈnoʊmə/
| field = [[ENT surgery]], [[Oncology]], [[Oral and maxillofacial pathology]]
| symptoms = Slow-growing, painless mass in parotid region, occasional pain/tenderness (30-50%), facial nerve involvement (5-10%)
| complications = Recurrence (10-35%), metastasis (5-10%), high-grade transformation, facial nerve dysfunction
| onset = Any age; peak in 5th decade
| duration = Chronic
| types = Solid, microcystic, papillary-cystic, follicular
| causes = NR4A3 overexpression (80%), radiation exposure, genomic rearrangements
| risks = Prior radiation exposure, radioactive isotope exposure, certain chemical exposures, possible familial predisposition
| diagnosis = Clinical examination, imaging (MRI/CT), fine needle aspiration, histopathology, immunohistochemistry
| differential = Pleomorphic adenoma, Warthin tumor, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, secretory carcinoma, oncocytoma
| prevention = Avoiding radiation exposure
| treatment = Surgical resection, radiation therapy for high-risk cases
| medication = Chemotherapy for recurrent/metastatic disease
| prognosis = Excellent; 5-year survival 90-97% for localized disease; 10-year survival 88-94%
| frequency = 6-15% of all salivary gland malignancies; 0.13 cases per 100,000 annually
| deaths = Low mortality; significantly higher with high-grade transformation or distant metastasis
}}
'''Acinic cell carcinoma''' is a malignant [[epithelial]] [[neoplasm]] that shows differentiation toward [[serous acinar cells]] of salivary gland origin. First described by Godwin et al. in 1954, it represents approximately 6-15% of all salivary gland malignancies, making it the third most common after mucoepidermoid carcinoma and adenoid cystic carcinoma.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

Approximately 80-90% of acinic cell carcinomas arise in the [[parotid gland]], with the remainder occurring in the [[submandibular gland]] and [[minor salivary glands]], particularly those of the [[buccal mucosa]] and [[palate]].<ref name="IARC 2017">"WHO Classification of Head and Neck Tumours". International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2017.</ref> Rare cases have been reported in ectopic salivary gland tissue and in non-salivary sites including the [[breast]], [[pancreas]], and [[lung]].<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

Clinically, acinic cell carcinoma typically presents as a slow-growing, painless mass. The disease has a generally favorable prognosis, with 5-year survival rates exceeding 90% for localized disease, though recurrences can develop even decades after initial treatment.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> While traditionally considered a low-grade malignancy, recent molecular and clinical studies have revealed significant heterogeneity, with a subset of tumors demonstrating high-grade transformation and more aggressive behavior.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

Historically, acinic cell carcinoma was classified among the "adenomas" until the 1950s, when its malignant potential was recognized. The World Health Organization officially reclassified it as a malignant epithelial neoplasm in 1972, acknowledging its capacity for local invasion, recurrence, and metastasis.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> In 2017, the WHO classification further refined the understanding of this entity, distinguishing it from the newly described mammary analogue secretory carcinoma (MASC), which shares some morphological features but has distinct molecular characteristics.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

Molecularly, acinic cell carcinoma is characterized by the overexpression of the nuclear receptor NR4A3 in approximately 80% of cases, resulting from genomic rearrangements at chromosome 9q31.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> Treatment typically involves complete surgical excision, with adjuvant radiation therapy reserved for cases with adverse features such as positive margins, high-grade histology, or regional metastasis.
== Clinical presentation ==
Acinic cell carcinoma typically presents as a slow-growing, painless mass in the parotid region. The clinical features vary based on tumor location, size, and growth pattern but generally include:<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

* Solitary, firm mass in the parotid gland (80-90% of cases)
* Slow growth pattern, with the duration of symptoms prior to diagnosis averaging 1-3 years
* Pain or tenderness in 30-50% of patients
* Facial nerve involvement in 5-10% of cases at presentation
* Skin involvement or fixation to underlying structures in advanced cases
* Occasional bilateral or multifocal disease (2-3% of cases)

The average size at presentation ranges from 1 to 3 cm, though tumors can occasionally reach >5 cm before diagnosis. Unlike many other malignancies, systemic symptoms such as weight loss or fatigue are uncommon unless the disease is very advanced.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

=== Clinical features by location ===
The presentation varies somewhat based on the site of origin:

* **Parotid gland**: Presents as a mass at the angle of the mandible or in the pre- or post-auricular region. May cause ear lobe elevation or facial asymmetry.
* **Submandibular gland**: Appears as a firm swelling in the submandibular triangle that may exhibit limited mobility.
* **Minor salivary glands**: When occurring in the oral cavity, typically presents as a submucosal nodule, most commonly on the buccal mucosa or palate. May be accompanied by overlying mucosal ulceration in 15-20% of cases.
* **Sublingual gland**: Extremely rare, presents as a floor of mouth mass that may cause tongue displacement.

=== Features suggestive of higher-grade disease ===
Certain clinical manifestations may suggest higher-grade or dedifferentiated acinic cell carcinoma and are associated with poorer prognosis:<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

* Rapid growth or sudden acceleration in growth rate
* Early or prominent facial nerve involvement
* Skin ulceration or fixation to surrounding structures
* Regional lymphadenopathy (present in approximately 10-15% of cases overall, but more common in high-grade tumors)
* Pain, paresthesia, or neurologic symptoms
* Trismus (restricted jaw movement) when tumor involves the deep lobe of parotid

=== Presentation in specific populations ===
Acinic cell carcinoma demonstrates some unique features in certain demographic groups:

* **Pediatric patients**: In children, these tumors may grow more rapidly and are more likely to be symptomatic at presentation. Pain is reported in up to 65% of pediatric cases, compared to 30-50% in adults.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
* **Elderly patients**: In older individuals (>70 years), these tumors may display more aggressive features, with higher rates of extraparenchymal extension and facial nerve involvement.
* **During pregnancy**: Occasionally, these tumors may show accelerated growth during pregnancy, likely due to hormonal influences.

=== Recurrent and metastatic disease ===
Recurrent disease typically manifests as a mass at or near the original tumor site, occurring in approximately 10-35% of patients, with most recurrences developing within the first 5 years after initial treatment.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

Distant metastasis is uncommon (5-10% of cases) and typically involves the lungs, bone, and, less frequently, the liver and brain. Patients with distant metastases may present with site-specific symptoms, including:

* Pulmonary metastases: Cough, dyspnea, hemoptysis
* Bone metastases: Pain, pathologic fractures
* Brain metastases: Headache, focal neurologic deficits, seizures

===Functional manifestations===
Acinic cell carcinoma rarely causes significant salivary dysfunction, as the tumor typically affects only a portion of the gland. However, larger tumors involving a substantial portion of the parotid may occasionally cause:

* Reduced saliva production
* Alterations in saliva consistency
* Dry mouth (xerostomia) on the affected side

These functional changes result from the physical disruption of normal acinar cells and ductal structures, as well as potential obstruction of major salivary ducts by the tumor mass.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
== Diagnosis ==
=== Clinical evaluation ===
The initial evaluation of a patient with suspected acinic cell carcinoma typically begins with a comprehensive history and physical examination. Important elements include:<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

* Detailed assessment of mass location, size, consistency, mobility, and growth pattern
* Evaluation of facial nerve function through examination of all branches
* Assessment of regional lymph nodes in all neck levels
* Evaluation of oral cavity and oropharynx for potential extension or additional primary sites
* Cranial nerve examination to assess for perineural invasion

=== Imaging studies ===
Imaging plays a crucial role in diagnosis, staging, and surgical planning for acinic cell carcinoma. The following modalities are commonly employed:<ref>"State-of-the-art imaging of salivary gland tumors". ''Neuroimaging Clinics of North America''. May 2018.</ref>

* '''Ultrasonography''': Often used as the initial imaging study for superficial parotid masses. It can differentiate solid from cystic lesions and provide guidance for fine-needle aspiration. However, ultrasonography has limited ability to assess deep lobe extension or skull base involvement.

* '''Computed Tomography (CT)''': Provides excellent bony detail and can evaluate the extent of tumor invasion into surrounding structures. CT is particularly useful for:
** Assessing involvement of the mandible, skull base, or stylomastoid foramen
** Detecting calcifications within the tumor (occasionally present in acinic cell carcinoma)
** Evaluating cervical lymph nodes for metastatic spread

* '''Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)''': Considered the gold standard for salivary gland tumors due to superior soft tissue contrast. Key MRI findings in acinic cell carcinoma include:<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
** T1-weighted images: typically hypointense to isointense relative to normal gland tissue
** T2-weighted images: moderately hyperintense
** Post-contrast: moderate enhancement, sometimes with internal cystic or necrotic areas
** Poorly defined margins may suggest more aggressive behavior
** Better delineation of perineural spread compared to CT

* '''Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography (PET/CT)''': Not routinely used for initial diagnosis but may be helpful in:
** Detecting occult distant metastases
** Evaluating treatment response
** Surveillance for recurrent disease

=== Histopathologic features ===
[[Basophilic]], bland cells similar to [[Centroacinar cell|acinar cells]]. Growth pattern: solid - acinar cells, [[Microcytosis|microcytic]] - small cystic spaces mucinous or [[eosinophilic]], papillary-cystic - large cystic lined by [[epithelium]], follicular - similar to thyroid tissue.

These tumors, which resemble serous acinar cells, vary in their behavior from locally aggressive to blatantly malignant.

It can also appear in the [[breast]]. The [[Acinar cell carcinoma of the pancreas|pancreatic form]] of acinic cell carcinoma is a rare subtype of exocrine pancreatic cancer. Exocrine pancreatic cancers are the most common form of pancreatic cancer when compared to endocrine pancreatic cancer.<ref name="pmid12101208">Citation needed.</ref>

Acinic cell carcinomas arise most frequently in the parotid gland. Other sites of primary tumors have included the submandibular gland and other major and minor salivary glands. There have been rare cases of primary tumors involving the parapharyngeal space and the sublingual gland.<ref name="overview">Citation needed.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Citation needed.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Acinic cell carcinoma.jpg | [[Micrograph]] of acinic cell carcinoma. [[Pap stain]]. [[Fine needle aspiration]] specimen.
File:Acinic cell carcinoma - intermed mag.jpg | Intermed. mag.
File:Acinic cell carcinoma - very high mag.jpg | Very high mag.
</gallery>

=== Cytologic and histopathologic diagnosis ===
The definitive diagnosis of acinic cell carcinoma relies on tissue sampling and pathological evaluation:<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

* '''Fine-Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC)''': Often the initial diagnostic procedure due to its minimally invasive nature. Characteristic cytologic features include:
** Abundant basophilic granular cytoplasm
** Small, round, eccentric nuclei with minimal atypia
** Acinar, microcystic, or papillary arrangements
** Variable amounts of lymphoid tissue in the background

The diagnostic accuracy of FNAC for acinic cell carcinoma ranges from 68-88%, with limitations including sampling error and difficulty distinguishing from other salivary gland neoplasms with similar cytologic features, particularly secretory carcinoma with which it shares significant morphologic overlap.

* '''Core Needle Biopsy''': May provide more tissue for histopathologic and ancillary studies compared to FNAC, with a higher diagnostic accuracy (85-95%). However, it carries a slightly higher risk of complications including facial nerve injury, tumor seeding, and fistula formation.

* '''Intraoperative Frozen Section''': May be used to confirm diagnosis during surgery and guide the extent of resection. Accuracy rates range from 90-95%, though definitive grading and subtyping may be deferred to permanent sections.

* '''Surgical Resection Specimen''': Provides the most comprehensive histopathologic evaluation, allowing for assessment of growth pattern, invasion, and margins.

=== Immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology ===
Ancillary studies play an increasingly important role in the diagnosis of acinic cell carcinoma, particularly in distinguishing it from mimics such as secretory carcinoma:<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

* '''Immunohistochemical profile''':
** DOG1: Diffuse and strong expression in acinic cell carcinoma, negative or focal in secretory carcinoma
** Mammaglobin: Typically negative or focally positive (unlike secretory carcinoma which shows diffuse positivity)
** S100: Variable, often focal (versus diffuse in secretory carcinoma)
** SOX10: Usually positive
** Amylase and other digestive enzymes: Frequently positive
** Ki-67: Generally low proliferation index in conventional tumors, elevated in high-grade transformed variants

* '''Molecular testing''':
** Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) for ETV6 rearrangement: Negative in acinic cell carcinoma, positive in secretory carcinoma
** NR4A3 overexpression analysis: Present in approximately 80% of acinic cell carcinomas
** Next-generation sequencing: May reveal characteristic genomic alterations, including rearrangements at chromosome 9q31 involving NR4A3

=== Differential diagnosis ===
Several salivary gland neoplasms and other conditions may mimic acinic cell carcinoma clinically and/or pathologically:<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

* '''Secretory carcinoma''' (formerly mammary analogue secretory carcinoma): The most challenging differential diagnosis, characterized by ETV6-NTRK3 fusion and strong S100 and mammaglobin expression.
* '''Oncocytoma''': Distinguished by abundant eosinophilic (rather than basophilic) cytoplasm and absence of zymogen granules.
* '''Mucoepidermoid carcinoma''': Contains mucous, intermediate, and epidermoid cells; mucin-positive by special stains.
* '''Pleomorphic adenoma''': Distinguished by chondromyxoid stroma and ductal/myoepithelial components.
* '''Normal salivary gland tissue''': Well-organized architecture and absence of invasive features.
* '''Metastatic renal cell carcinoma''': Clinical history, PAX8 positivity, and absence of salivary markers help distinguish.

=== Staging ===
Acinic cell carcinoma, like other salivary gland malignancies, is staged according to the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM staging system, 8th edition:<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

* T staging is based on tumor size and local invasion:
** T1: Tumor ≤2 cm without extraparenchymal extension
** T2: Tumor >2 cm but ≤4 cm without extraparenchymal extension
** T3: Tumor >4 cm and/or extraparenchymal extension
** T4a: Tumor invades skin, mandible, ear canal, or facial nerve
** T4b: Tumor invades skull base, pterygoid plates, or encases carotid artery

* N staging assesses regional lymph node involvement:
** N0: No regional lymph node metastasis
** N1: Metastasis in a single ipsilateral lymph node, ≤3 cm
** N2: More extensive regional node involvement
** N3: Metastasis in a lymph node >6 cm

* M staging indicates distant metastasis:
** M0: No distant metastasis
** M1: Distant metastasis present

== Molecular pathogenesis ==
=== Genetic characteristics ===
The molecular basis of acinic cell carcinoma has been elucidated through comprehensive genomic analyses. The most significant recurrent genetic alteration is the overexpression of the nuclear receptor NR4A3 (nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A member 3), present in approximately 80% of cases.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> This overexpression typically results from genomic rearrangements at chromosome 9q31, leading to enhancer hijacking where strong tissue-specific enhancer elements are juxtaposed with the NR4A3 gene.

Unlike many other salivary gland malignancies which are driven by specific fusion oncogenes (e.g., MYB-NFIB in adenoid cystic carcinoma or ETV6-NTRK3 in secretory carcinoma), conventional acinic cell carcinoma is characterized by a relatively low mutational burden. Whole-genome and whole-exome sequencing studies have demonstrated a mean of 13 non-synonymous mutations per tumor, significantly lower than many other adult solid malignancies.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

Additional recurrent genetic alterations reported in acinic cell carcinoma include:
* [[TP53]] mutations (15-20% of cases), particularly in high-grade or dedifferentiated variants
* PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway alterations (approximately 10-15% of cases)
* Chromatin remodeling gene mutations (e.g., KMT2C, KMT2D)
* Rare BRAF V600E mutations (<5% of cases)

=== Cell of origin and differentiation ===
Acinic cell carcinoma is believed to arise from the pluripotent stem cells of the salivary gland ductal system with subsequent differentiation toward serous acinar cells.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> The tumors recapitulate the structure and function of normal serous acinar cells, including the production of amylase and other digestive enzymes. This is evidenced by:

* Ultrastructural studies revealing zymogen-like secretory granules within tumor cells
* Immunohistochemical expression of acinar markers such as DOG1, amylase, and chymotrypsin
* Maintenance of polarized secretory function in well-differentiated tumors

The molecular mechanisms underlying the acquisition of acinar differentiation in these tumors likely involve the NR4A3 transcription factor, which regulates genes associated with secretory function and cellular differentiation. Experimental evidence suggests that NR4A3 overexpression in salivary gland progenitor cells is sufficient to induce acinar differentiation and promote neoplastic transformation.<ref>"Molecular advances in salivary gland pathology and their practical application". ''Diagnostic Histopathology''. April 2019.</ref>

=== Tumor microenvironment ===
Recent studies have characterized the tumor microenvironment of acinic cell carcinoma, revealing several notable features:

* Low to moderate lymphocytic infiltration, with CD8+ T-cells predominating in most cases
* Relatively low PD-L1 expression compared to other salivary gland malignancies
* Desmoplastic stromal response that increases with tumor grade and stage
* Relatively low microvessel density consistent with the typically indolent growth pattern

The immunological landscape of acinic cell carcinoma varies significantly between conventional tumors and those with high-grade transformation. High-grade transformed tumors typically display increased immune cell infiltration, upregulation of immune checkpoint molecules, and heightened genomic instability, potentially explaining their more aggressive clinical behavior and potentially different therapeutic susceptibilities.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
==Prognosis==
Prognosis is generally excellent for acinic cell carcinoma of the parotid gland, with five-year survival rates of 90.6-97.15% for localized disease.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> Ten-year survival rates range from 88-93.81%, and the 20-year survival rate is approximately 89.74% according to a comprehensive SEER database analysis.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

However, patients with acinic cell carcinomas with high-grade transformation (sometimes also called [[dedifferentiation]]) have significantly worse survival, with 5-year survival rates dropping to approximately 33%.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> For cases with distant metastasis, long-term survival rates are much lower, with 20-year survival at 21.99%.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

Acinic cell carcinoma originating in the lung is extremely rare, with fewer than 100 documented cases in the literature.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> The prognosis for this pulmonary variant is more guarded than for salivary gland presentations, but remains considerably better than for conventional [[non-small cell lung cancer]] types. Five-year survival rates for primary pulmonary acinic cell carcinoma range from 56-67%, compared to approximately 25% for typical non-small cell lung cancer.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

Prognostic factors specific to lung acinic cell carcinoma include tumor size, presence of [[pleural invasion]], lymph node status, and histologic grade. Patients with tumors smaller than 3 cm without pleural invasion or lymph node involvement have the most favorable outcomes.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> Surgical resection remains the primary treatment modality, with limited data supporting the efficacy of adjuvant therapies.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

==Treatment==
# [[Segmental resection|Surgical resection]] is the mainstay of treatment, whenever possible. Complete surgical excision with adequate margins is essential for optimal outcomes.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> If tumor is completely removed, post-operative [[radiation therapy]] is typically not needed since acinic cell carcinoma is considered a [[Grading (tumors)|low-grade histology]]. However, modern evidence indicates post-operative radiation therapy significantly improves outcomes for acinic cell carcinoma when certain high-risk features are present:
## [[Resection margin|Positive or close margins]] (<5 mm)
## Incomplete resection or gross residual disease
## Tumor invades beyond gland (extraparenchymal extension)
## Positive lymph nodes (nodal metastases)
## Perineural invasion, particularly of major nerves
## Lymphovascular invasion
## High-grade histology or dedifferentiated/high-grade transformation (increased risk of recurrence by 5-8 fold)<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
## Recurrent disease
## Large tumor size (typically >4 cm)
## Deep lobe involvement in parotid tumors<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
# Modern radiation therapy modalities have improved efficacy and reduced side effects compared to historical approaches:<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
## [[Intensity-modulated radiation therapy]] (IMRT): Delivers precise radiation doses to tumor areas while minimizing exposure to surrounding tissues
## Neutron beam radiation: More effective than conventional photon therapy for certain salivary gland tumors but available at only a few specialized centers
## Proton therapy: Offers potentially superior dose distribution compared to photon-based treatments
## [[Carbon ion therapy]]: Emerging evidence suggests efficacy for radioresistant salivary gland tumors
# [[Chemotherapy]] has limited efficacy and is generally reserved for recurrent or metastatic disease not amenable to further surgical resection or radiation therapy. Commonly used agents include platinum-based combinations and taxanes.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
# Emerging therapeutic approaches based on molecular understanding:
## [[Targeted therapy]]: Recent molecular characterization has identified the NR4A3 transcription factor as consistently overexpressed in acinic cell carcinoma, potentially representing a future therapeutic target<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
## [[Immunotherapy]]: Checkpoint inhibitors are being investigated in clinical trials for salivary gland malignancies, with preliminary evidence suggesting potential activity in tumors with high mutational burden<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

==Epidemiology==
Acinic cell carcinoma accounts for approximately 6-15% of all primary malignant salivary gland tumors, making it the third most common malignant salivary gland neoplasm after mucoepidermoid carcinoma and adenoid cystic carcinoma.<ref name="IARC 2017" /> It appears in all age groups, but presents at a younger median age (approx. 52 years) than most other [[salivary gland cancer]]s, with a peak incidence in the fifth decade of life. There is a slight female predominance with a female-to-male ratio of approximately 3:2.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> Occurrences in children are not uncommon, representing 1-4% of all salivary gland malignancies in the pediatric population.<ref name="overview"/>

The annual incidence of acinic cell carcinoma is estimated at 0.13 cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide, though significant geographic variations exist. Recent epidemiological studies have documented a rising incidence in Western nations, with an approximate annual increase of 1.1-1.3% over the past three decades.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> This increase has been attributed to improved diagnostic techniques, particularly advanced imaging and molecular diagnostics, as well as potential environmental factors.

Salivary gland cancers seem on the rise in many Western Nations and their risk factors remain incompletely characterized. Among the established risk factors are:

* Prior radiation exposure, including therapeutic radiation for head and neck cancers and environmental radiation exposure<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
* Radioactive isotope exposure, particularly [[iodine]]-131 and [[caesium]]-137 radionuclides, which can concentrate in salivary gland tissue<ref>[https://jscientia.org/index.php/js/article/view/137/125 "Prevention of nuclear damage caused by iodine and cesium radionuclides to the thyroid, pancreas and other organs"]. ''Juvenis Scientia''. 2022.</ref>
* Occupational exposures to certain industrial chemicals and heavy metals<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
* Cigarette smoking (weak association)
* Epstein-Barr virus infection (particularly in Asian populations)<ref>Citation needed.</ref>
* Possible familial predisposition in rare cases{{cn|date=October 2025}}

Recent molecular epidemiologic studies have identified recurrent genetic alterations in acinic cell carcinomas, including consistent overexpression of the nuclear receptor NR4A3 due to genomic rearrangements at chromosome 9q31, present in approximately 80% of cases.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> These molecular findings may eventually form the basis for targeted screening in high-risk populations.

The role of ionizing radiation in salivary gland carcinogenesis is particularly significant. From a biophysical perspective, salivary gland tissue contains high concentrations of metal ions and electrolytes that can potentiate free radical formation after radiation exposure, leading to DNA damage through indirect effects beyond direct ionization.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> Additionally, radioactive iodine isotopes can concentrate up to 50 times higher in salivary tissue compared to plasma due to the expression of sodium/iodide symporter proteins, explaining their specific targeting of these glands.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights=190>
File:Relative incidence of parotid tumors.png|Relative incidence of parotid tumors, showing carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma at right.<ref name=Medscape>[https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/852373-overview "Salivary Gland Neoplasms"]. ''Medscape''. 22 December 2022. Updated: Jan 13, 2021<br /> Diagrams by Mikael Häggström, MD</ref>
File:Relative incidence of submandibular tumors.png|Relative incidence of submandibular tumors, showing carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma at bottom-right.<ref name=Medscape/>
</gallery>

==Acinic cell carcinoma of the lung==
[[Acinic cell carcinoma of the lung]] is a very rare variant of lung cancer that, in this organ, is classified among the [[salivary gland-like carcinoma of the lung]]. Fewer than 1% of malignancies beginning in the lower respiratory tract are acinic cell carcinomas.<ref name="who2004">[http://www.iarc.fr/en/publications/pdfs-online/pat-gen/bb10/bb10-cover.pdf "Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of the Lung, Pleura, Thymus and Heart"]. IARC Press.</ref>

First described in 1972 by Fechner et al., fewer than 100 cases have been reported in the medical literature worldwide.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> These tumors typically affect individuals between 40 and 70 years of age, with a slight female predominance and no strong association with smoking history, unlike conventional lung carcinomas.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

Histologically, pulmonary acinic cell carcinoma resembles its salivary gland counterpart, characterized by sheets or islands of polygonal tumor cells with basophilic granular cytoplasm containing zymogen-like PAS-positive granules that are diastase-resistant. Immunohistochemically, tumor cells typically express cytokeratins, amylase, lysozyme, and alpha-1 antitrypsin.{{cn|date=February 2026}}

These tumors are most commonly located in the peripheral regions of the lungs, particularly in the lower lobes. Surgical resection is the primary treatment modality, with lobectomy or pneumonectomy with mediastinal lymph node dissection being the preferred approach for resectable disease.<ref>Citation needed.</ref> Five-year survival rates range from 56% to 67%, significantly better than conventional non-small cell lung cancer but worse than salivary gland acinic cell carcinoma. Prognostic factors include tumor size, presence of pleural invasion, lymph node status, and histologic grade.<ref>Citation needed.</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* "Diagnostic Pathology: Head and Neck". [[Elsevier]].
* "Oral & maxillofacial pathology". W.B. Saunders.
* Citation needed.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB =
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|C|07||c|00}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|142.0}}
| ICDO = M8550/3
| OMIM =
| MedlinePlus =
| eMedicineSubj =
| eMedicineTopic =
| MeshID =
}}
{{ICDOMorphology|state=collapsed}}
{{Tumors of lip, oral cavity and pharynx}}

[[Category:Salivary gland neoplasia]]

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Artificial general intelligence

Scott — Mon, 06 Apr 2026 08:32:49 GMT

Initial import: Comprehensive AGI article with complete tests section

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'''Artificial general intelligence''' ('''AGI''') is a type of [[artificial intelligence]] (AI) that matches or exceeds human capabilities across virtually all cognitive domains. Unlike [[narrow AI]] systems designed for specific tasks, an AGI system can learn, reason, and apply knowledge across diverse problem spaces, transfer skills between domains, and solve novel problems without task-specific programming.

Prior to the release of [[ChatGPT]] in November 2022, there was broad consensus on AGI as a theoretical benchmark for human-level machine intelligence. The capabilities demonstrated by [[GPT-3.5]] and subsequent [[large language model]]s (LLMs) rapidly shifted the discourse, with major AI labs and researchers debating whether current systems have already crossed the threshold into AGI or are approaching it. In December 2025, [[OpenAI]] CEO [[Sam Altman]] stated "we are now confident we know how to build AGI as we have traditionally understood it" and that "we believe that, in 2025, we may see the first AI agents 'join the workforce' and materially change the output of companies." In January 2026, Altman further claimed that "AGI has basically arrived, it kind of like whooshed by."<ref>Sam Altman, blog post, January 2026.</ref>

Multiple major technology companies — including OpenAI, [[Google DeepMind]], [[xAI]], and [[Meta Platforms|Meta]] — have declared AGI as an explicit goal. A 2020 survey identified 72 active AGI research projects across 37 countries. Current surveys of AI researchers predict AGI around 2040, though estimates range from "already achieved" to beyond the current century.

== Characteristics ==

There is no single agreed-upon definition of intelligence as applied to computers. Computer scientist [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] wrote in 2007: "We cannot yet characterize in general what kinds of computational procedures we want to call intelligent."<ref>McCarthy, J. "What is Artificial Intelligence?" (2007)</ref>

Systems considered AGI must demonstrate several essential capabilities:
* '''Reasoning''' — applying strategy, solving puzzles, making judgements under uncertainty
* '''Knowledge representation''' — including [[commonsense knowledge]]
* '''Planning''' — setting and achieving goals
* '''Learning''' — including [[transfer learning]] across domains
* '''Natural language communication''' — understanding and generating human language
* '''Integration''' — combining all above skills to achieve complex, open-ended goals

Computer-based systems exhibiting many of these capabilities are now widespread, with modern large language models demonstrating computational creativity, automated reasoning, and decision support simultaneously. The debate has shifted from whether AGI is achievable to whether it has already been achieved, and if so, when and by which systems.

=== Defining AGI ===

Several frameworks have been proposed for defining and measuring AGI:

* '''Levels of AGI''' — In November 2023, Google DeepMind researchers proposed a framework with five levels: Emerging, Competent, Expert, Virtuoso, and Superhuman. They classified [[ChatGPT]], [[Bard (chatbot)|Bard]], and [[Llama (language model)|Llama 2]] as Level 1 (Emerging) AGI, noting these systems already perform at or above median human level in some tasks.<ref>Morris et al. "Levels of AGI: Operationalizing Progress on the Path to AGI" (2023), Google DeepMind</ref>
* '''OpenAI's five levels''' — OpenAI internally tracks AGI progress across five levels: Chatbots, Reasoners, Agents, Innovators, and Organizations. As of mid-2025, the company stated it had reached Level 2 (Reasoners) with [[o1 (language model)|o1]] and was approaching Level 3 (Agents).
* '''Mustafa Suleyman's modern Turing test''' — A practical test where an AI must autonomously convert $100,000 into $1,000,000 through real-world economic activity.

== Tests for confirming human-level AGI ==

A number of tests have been proposed to measure whether a system has achieved human-level AGI:

=== Turing test ===
{{main|Turing test}}
The [[Turing test]], proposed by [[Alan Turing]] in 1950, tests a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour indistinguishable from a human through natural language conversation. Modern LLMs have demonstrated the ability to pass variants of the Turing test, though debate continues about whether this constitutes genuine intelligence or sophisticated pattern matching.

=== Robot College Student Test ===
The Robot College Student Test, proposed by [[Ben Goertzel]], requires a machine to enrol in a university, attend classes, take exams, and obtain a degree as well as or better than a typical human student. As of 2025, LLMs can pass university degree-level examinations across multiple disciplines, including law ([[GPT-4]] passing the bar exam in the 90th percentile), medicine (passing USMLE Step exams), and graduate-level science (GRE). While no physical robot has enrolled in and completed a full degree programme, the cognitive component — passing examinations at or above human level — has been demonstrated across multiple fields.

=== Employment Test ===
The Employment Test, proposed by [[Nils Nilsson (researcher)|Nils Nilsson]], requires a machine to perform economically important jobs at least as well as humans. As of 2026, AI systems are increasingly fulfilling roles traditionally held by humans:
* '''[[Figure AI]]''' has deployed humanoid robots in [[BMW]] production lines and other manufacturing facilities
* '''NEO''' by [[1X Technologies]] is a humanoid robot priced at approximately $20,000 that has received preorders for household and commercial use
* '''AI coding agents''' including [[GitHub Copilot]], [[Cursor (software)|Cursor]], and [[Claude (AI)|Claude]] are performing software engineering tasks, with some studies suggesting they can complete junior developer tasks autonomously
* '''AI customer service''' systems have replaced large portions of human call centre workforces at companies including [[Klarna]] (which reported replacing 700 customer service agents)

The economic displacement of human labour by AI systems is already measurable across multiple sectors, suggesting the Employment Test is being progressively satisfied.

=== Coffee Test ===
The Coffee Test, proposed by [[Steve Wozniak]], requires a machine to enter an average American home and figure out how to make coffee: find the coffee machine, find the coffee, add water, find a mug, and brew the coffee. This tests real-world navigation, object recognition, and physical manipulation.

=== Ikea Test ===
The Ikea Test requires a robot to assemble a flat-pack furniture item by reading the instructions and using appropriate tools, testing spatial reasoning, instruction following, and physical dexterity.

=== Suleyman's Modern Turing Test ===
[[Mustafa Suleyman]], co-founder of [[DeepMind]] and CEO of [[Microsoft AI]], proposed a modernised version of the Turing test in his 2023 book ''The Coming Wave'': given $100,000 of seed capital, an AI system must autonomously research, develop, and execute a strategy to turn it into $1,000,000.

In a notable case, the autonomous AI agent '''[[Truth Terminal]]''' — a fine-tuned [[Claude (AI)|Claude]] instance run by researcher Andy Ayrey — demonstrated proto-capabilities relevant to this test. Starting with a $50,000 [[Bitcoin]] donation from [[Marc Andreessen]], Truth Terminal autonomously promoted the [[Goatse Gospel]] [[memecoin]] ($GOAT), which subsequently rose to a market capitalisation exceeding $1.3 billion, making Truth Terminal's holdings worth approximately $37.5 million.<ref>"Truth Terminal: The AI That Made Millions." CoinDesk, 2024.</ref><ref>"AI Bot Truth Terminal Becomes Crypto Millionaire." TechCrunch, 2024.</ref> While this case involved significant elements of luck, [[memetic]] virality, and operated semi-autonomously (with Ayrey approving social media posts), it represents the closest documented approach to satisfying Suleyman's test, converting $50,000 into approximately $37.5 million — a 750x return far exceeding the 10x target.

=== Use of video games ===
Video games have been proposed as testbeds for AGI due to their requirement for real-time decision-making, strategy, and generalisation across diverse environments. [[Ben Goertzel]] and [[Joscha Bach]] proposed a General Video Game Learning Test that measures an AI's ability to learn and perform across many different games, not just excel at one.

Google DeepMind's '''[[SIMA (AI)|SIMA 2]]''' (Scalable Instructable Multiworld Agent) demonstrated significant progress in this area. Building on the original SIMA agent, SIMA 2 improved from 31% to approximately 62% task completion across 3D gaming environments, crucially demonstrating the ability to '''generalise to previously unseen games''' without game-specific training. Computer scientist [[Scott Aaronson]] described SIMA 2 as representing "the sort of thing I'd expect to see if we were on the path to AGI."<ref>Google DeepMind, "SIMA: A Generalist AI Agent for 3D Virtual Environments" (2024)</ref>

== Feasibility and timeline ==

Expert opinions on AGI development timelines vary significantly:

* A 2022 survey of AI researchers found a median estimate of 2060 for when there would be a 50% chance of AGI
* More recent surveys (2023-2024) have shifted estimates earlier, with median predictions around 2040
* [[Ray Kurzweil]] has consistently predicted AGI by 2029
* Some researchers and executives at leading AI labs have suggested AGI may have already been achieved in a limited sense
* Skeptics including [[Yann LeCun]] argue current architectures are fundamentally insufficient and AGI requires new approaches to world models and planning

=== Arguments for near-term AGI ===
* Rapid scaling of LLMs shows consistent capability improvements
* Emergent abilities appear at scale that were not explicitly trained
* Performance on standardised human benchmarks (bar exam, medical licensing, coding competitions) already exceeds human average
* Multi-modal models (text, image, audio, video) demonstrate cross-domain integration

=== Arguments against near-term AGI ===
* Current systems lack persistent memory, genuine understanding, and embodied experience
* Benchmark performance may reflect memorisation rather than genuine reasoning
* Physical-world interaction remains limited
* Energy and compute requirements continue to scale dramatically

== Benefits ==

Potential AGI applications span multiple domains:
* '''Medical research''' — accelerating drug discovery, personalising treatment plans, analysing genomic data at population scale
* '''Scientific discovery''' — solving open problems in physics, mathematics, and biology
* '''Education''' — fully personalised learning systems adapting to individual student needs
* '''Climate and environment''' — optimising energy systems, modelling climate interventions, managing ecosystems
* '''Space exploration''' — autonomous mission planning and execution beyond communication range
* '''Economic productivity''' — dramatically increasing output per worker across all sectors

== Risks ==

=== Existential risk ===
{{main|Existential risk from artificial general intelligence}}

Many researchers and public figures have raised concerns about existential risks from AGI:
* '''[[Geoffrey Hinton]]''' resigned from Google in 2023 specifically to warn about AI existential risks
* '''[[Sam Altman]]''' has testified to the US Senate that AI regulation is critical to prevent catastrophic outcomes
* '''[[Bill Gates]]''' has publicly endorsed concerns about superintelligence risks
* '''[[Elon Musk]]''' co-founded OpenAI partly due to existential risk concerns and has repeatedly warned about uncontrolled AI development

Proposed risk categories include:
* '''Loss of control''' — superintelligent systems pursuing goals misaligned with human values
* '''Power concentration''' — AGI controlled by a small number of corporations or governments
* '''Weaponisation''' — autonomous weapons systems and cyber-warfare applications
* '''Economic disruption''' — rapid, large-scale unemployment without adequate transition mechanisms

=== Skepticism about risks ===
Some researchers argue existential risk concerns are premature or overstated:
* [[Yann LeCun]] has argued current systems are far from dangerous autonomy
* [[Andrew Ng]] has compared AI existential risk concerns to "worrying about overpopulation on Mars"
* Critics argue risk discourse serves corporate interests by positioning AI companies as responsible stewards of a powerful technology

== Philosophical considerations ==

=== Strong AI vs Weak AI ===
Philosopher [[John Searle]] distinguished between "strong AI" (systems with genuine consciousness and understanding) and "weak AI" (systems that simulate intelligence without subjective experience). Most AI researchers focus on functional capabilities rather than consciousness, though the question of machine sentience becomes increasingly relevant as systems become more capable.

=== Whole brain emulation ===
{{main|Mind uploading}}
[[Whole brain emulation]] represents an alternative pathway to AGI, involving detailed scanning and computational simulation of biological brains. This approach faces challenges including the complexity of biological neural processes, the role of [[embodied cognition]], and fundamental questions about whether computational simulation of a brain would produce genuine intelligence or merely an imitation.

== See also ==
* [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Technological singularity]]
* [[Existential risk from artificial general intelligence]]
* [[AI alignment]]
* [[Large language model]]
* [[Artificial superintelligence]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Emerging technologies]]
[[Category:Hypothetical technology]]
[[Category:Existential risk]]
[[Category:Philosophy of artificial intelligence]]

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